PSYCHOLOGY OF CONFLICT
Conflict is a phenomenon that occurs between people, those with different beliefs, motivations, values, worldviews constitute themselves, with different views of reality, they act upon their perceptions and respond emotionally according to what they perceive. People develop attitudes and behaviors toward others, they play different roles in their lives, make decisions every day, seeking to defend their points of view and it can take different positions of power in this process rely on their communication skills and their ability to persuade and negotiate. This material seeks to penetrate and serve as orientación y ayuda a quienes desean profundizar en la génesis, comprensión y resolución de conflictos en la esfera humana; se revisan conceptos claves y esenciales que ayudan a la comprensión desde un punto de vista psicológico.
El Conflicto
Cuando pensamos en la palabra Conflicto vienen a nuestra mente palabras como opsición, escasez, bloqueo y la suposición de que hay dos o más personas cuyos intereses o metas parecen incompatibles. Los recursos por lo general no son ilimitados y de ahí que surja la oposición y el comportamiento de bloqueo por los mismos. Definimos el conflicto en base a la percepción (conciencia), oposición, la escasez y el bloqueo; would be "the process by which to make an intentional effort to override esfuerzosde B through some kind of blockage that B will fail to achieve their goals or achieve their interests"
the conflict must be perceived by the parties. Its existence or nonexistence is a matter of perception, if no one is aware of it, is generally accepted that there is no conflict.
The current perspective on the conflict suggests not only that the conflict can be a positive force within a group, but explicitly states that some conflict is absolutely necessary for a group works well, is the stance called Interactionist Theory. This, then, stimulates the group leaders to maintain a minimum level of conflict that allows self-critical and creative group. Distinguished, yes, between functional and Conflict Dysfunctional Conflict, being the first one that improves compliance with the goals of a group and the second one that impedes the activity of that.
appreciate today the conflict from a modern perspective, even if it is supported by the evidence, it is not easy, because since we were little influenced by home, church, school, institutions that have traditionally been approached a traditional stance, emphasizing values \u200b\u200bcontrary to the conflict and stressing the importance of getting along with people. For example, the home tends to reinforce the pattern of authority by parents who know what is good for children, which must obey the same way in school are the teachers who are in authority, those who know and is the student who must learn, in short, in general we have been taught not to disagree. For the Church the issue is quite similar and even more, that proclaims the acceptance rather than confrontation.
conflict process occurs in four stages: (1) Potential Opposition, this first stage of conflict is the presence of conditions that may create the opportunity for conflict, not necessarily take it, but it is essential for its appearance. These initial conditions are related to communication problems and misunderstandings arising from different barriers that can do this in the media. Also these conditions are related to structural elements such as compatibility of goals, leadership style, degree of specialization in the work of a group, the ambiguity in the roles, etc. and finally, personal variables, which include value systems, individual differences or personality variables, such as authoritarian personalities, dogmatic and show little estimation. (2) Cognition and Personalization: If pre conditions, generate frustration, the possibility of opposition is realized in the second stage. "A can know that B and A have a serious disagreement ... but maybe it will not cause tension or disagreement with B" We talked a conflict requires the perception of all or part of the preconditions, and if it continues to personalization, ie the feeling of being emotionally involved, may feel anxiety, tension, frustration or hostility, conflict appears likely. (3) Behavior: In this third stage of the conflict, a member for actions that frustrate the goal achievement of others or go against the interests of it; is necessary that action is intentional, that is a conscious effort to thwart the other. In such circumstances, the conflict is obvious. The behaviors may be subtle and indirect as interference, to more open and direct and aggressive behavior, violent or uncontrolled. Examples of the former may be a student raises his hand to challenge the teacher and second strikes, rallies and wars. In this third phase behavior also arise regarding the handling of the conflict, which is the method by which those affected respond to it. Using two dimensions, such as cooperation and assertiveness, as the extent to which it seeks to meet the interests of others or themselves. The combined delivery the following 5 possibilities for conflict management or control: Competition (assertive and uncooperative, ie tend to seek the satisfaction of one's own interests without regard to the other) collaboration (assertive and cooperative), avoidance (not assertive and uncooperative) , fitness (not assertive and cooperative) and compromise (an intermediate stage between assertiveness and cooperation). (4) Results: Without any doubt previously performed behaviors produce results or consequences, those consequences may be functional when the conflict has served to improve group performance, such as improving the quality of decisions, stimulate creativity, motivate participants improve the climate, etc., or dysfunctional if it has hindered it, generating discontent uncontrolled destruction of the group or relationships, etc..
Values \u200b\u200bValues \u200b\u200brepresent basic convictions that "a specific mode of conduct or end state of existence is preferable from the standpoint of personal or social, to an opposite or converse mode of conduct or end state of existence.
As an example, we have the firm conviction that "freedom" is above the value of "personal privacy" or maybe have the firm conviction that the interests of the community is above individual interests, or that "cultural identity" is a thrust value that directs all decisions. It may also be that you think should pursue "personal success" or that is important "to start a family, or assess the" effort "on the achievements, job stability over risk, etc.. In each and every one of them there are values, that is deeply rooted beliefs and thoughts that give meaning to his life (in relation to the results you want or prefer) and guide or influence their decisions as they come to represent for you a idea of \u200b\u200bwhat is preferable or an interpretation of right and wrong.
The values \u200b\u200bare vitally important for their profound influence on the behavior of individuals. These are acquired within a culture itself, for example the values \u200b\u200bof our Western culture promotes individualism, competetividad, achievement, education, peace, democracy, etc.; Also acquired experientially by early influences household , for example, cooperation, harmony, religion, or experientially acquired also in school, fellowship, friendship, responsibility, etc.. These values \u200b\u200bare quite stable and permanent and will be with us for much of buestras lives.
There are different classifications of values, but we are left with that of G. Allport and colleagues who presented the early works of major importance in this regard. Identified six types of values: Theoretical
. They attached great importance to the discovery of truth through critical and rational approach. Economic
. Highlight useful and practical. Aesthetic
. They attributed the highest value on form and harmony. Social
. Awarded the maximum value of love between people. Political
. Emphasize the acquisition of power and influence.
Religious
. is concerned with the unity of experience and knowledge of the cosmos as a whole
Interestingly, whereas studies using these clsificaciones found, for example people under its occupation attach different importance to the six types of values. It is conceivable then a school teacher ("John") who probably give the first importance to the theoretical values, the second perhaps social values, the third largest economic values, fourth politicians, fifth and sixth aestheticians religious. One wonders how a teacher will result in the classification which the point value in first-order political values, the theoretical second, third religious, etc.
values \u200b\u200bof the people can certainly change and a clear example occurs in adolescence when they begin to "question" on the part of young people being part of this natural process of personal identity formation. To identify a person values, ie to meet its axis values \u200b\u200band deepest beliefs that guide their decisions, we ask again and again until a conviction and inexplicable feeling, then we will have a "value" as loyalty, trust, security, etc.:
For you: "What is important about ... ..?"
"what's important to you in ..."
"why is it important for you ...... ..."
"which has That's important to you ..? "
" what's important to you on the fact ...?
values, for being so stable and permanent and part of personal identity, are very difficult to change, for example think if you give up so easily to the value of honesty, loyalty, truth, dignity, or other that is "part" of you. Therefore it is more likely to recognize the set of values in person and bring our account to them, so our point of view will be more readily understood and accepted.
A conflict can be rooted in different values \u200b\u200bheld by the parties, be crucial to identify, recognize, respect and appreciate (this will allow the opening of the other party to us), then we find a "common ground" valued at parties from which it is possible to cause a movement in the positions that allow a dialogue or negotiation.
Emotions Emotions are feelings (such as happiness, despair or sadness) that tend to have both elements cognitive and physiological influences on behavior. Basic emotions that we all know are anger, fear, joy, disgust, sadness and surprise, as they are with us from birth and are present in all cultures. Emotions are a very important component of the motivation for our behavior and the behavior that arises from the motivational needs in turn affects the emotions.
is interesting to note that the conflict is one of the most active phenomena emotion. There is little research on conflict and emotion, but some studies have found that people experiencing mood tended to be less positive coping strategies to resolve conflicts and obtained better results. We have also found that negotiators who felt more angry expressed less desire to renegotiate in the future with his opponent. On the other hand, individuals who experience higher levels of negative emotions during the negotiation process of the conflict tend to consider worst executed the task of negotiation, conversely, those who reported higher levels of felt positive emotions tended to be regarded as more effective in short, the degree to which a person feels satisfied with the process that has involved depends largely on the type of emotion perceived in that situation.
From the foregoing it is clear that a situation of conflict is important to properly handle our emotions and make them available to conflict resolution. This means learning emotional self-control and learn to express feelings, particularly anger and frustration so they are not aggressive or destructive.
Anger is an emotion that may be present in a conflict, managing it will determine whether a conflict is resolved successfully or if it worsens. It is important to note that anger is a secondary emotion. After all anger is fear. The development of fear of anger means that you feel threatened, it stimulates expressed fear and anger. A first step in the responsible expression of anger is to identify the underlying fear. The previous fear is the cause of emotion. Understanding the cause of fear makes it possible to reduce the fear and allows for positive communication and collaboration
Recognize and understand the role of emotions in conflict resolution is essential, both of the other as oneself; convey emotions information in a dispute about the importance of an issue for everyone and will likely find a conflict different emotions such as anger, distrust, suspicion, contempt, resentment, fear and rejection. It is legitimate to explain the emotions appropriately and is important to act with tolerance to emotional expression of the other party, even allowing that "download", as this will free the appropriate pressure to allow work on conflict resolution and will generally be more efficient for the purpose of resolving the conflict, not react to emotional outbursts of the other party. It is in this direction we can speak of "Emotional Intelligence" to refer to the human capacity to feel, understand, control and modify emotional states in oneself and others, a term coined by two American psychologists (Peter Salov and John Mayer) and disseminated by the journalist Daniel Goleman in 1995.
Finally, we point out some ideas about emotional induction, that is how it is possible more likely to induce or emotional states on the other, in order to develop a positive climate or environment conducive to negotiation or conflict resolution. There are many ways of how people often unknowingly induce emotional states to one another, so for example, when during a conversation one of them begins to ask for further clarification on a point raised by the other and have emotional connotations . Every time we ask induce states, ie, reconnect people with experiences they have had in the past and re-live these emotions to a lesser extent, to further focus will be possible to develop the emotion in question. Directed imaginative activity, the expression of statements about the subject, the stimulation of memory, manipulation of facial expression, management of music in the environment, focusing on movies (films) significant, stories, the gift of present or gift, all of which are traditional methods of emotional induction used in some investigations.
Attitudes Attitudes are learned predispositions to respond favorably or adversely to a specific object. People develop attitudes towards different objects, so for example someone may have a positive or favorable toward Coca-Cola while another may have a negative attitude towards the drink and favorable to the pepsi cola. Develop attitudes towards many objects (things, people or situations) and to varying degrees ("I like," I do not like "), from very intense, gradual, and almost indifferent, being illustrative of this the greatest sympathy or rejection we have for different people we know. Attitudes have three components: affective, behavioral and cognitive. The affective component includes our positive or negative emotions about something, what we feel-as that the behavioral component consists of a willingness or intention to act in a manner consistent with our attitude and finally the cognitive component includes beliefs and thoughts we have about the object of our attitude, by way of example, the attitude towards Madonna consists of a positive emotion in front of his image (affective component), of an intention to buy their latest albums or imitate their clothing (the behavioral component) and believe that she is good singer is ua (cognitive component).
attitudes to identify people can ask
- How do you feel / think / believe about ...? (Cognitive component)
- ¿Qué sientes / te provoca/ ….? (componente afectivo)
- ¿Qué harías, cuál es tu intención respecto de…? (componente conductual)
y para averiguar la intensidad de una actitud…
- ¿En qué grado….? ó ¿En escala de 1 a 7 cuánto dirías…?
Las actitudes se van aprendiendo a lo largo de la vida, de manera dinámica, a través del aprendizaje cognitivo, el condicionamiento, o la imitación, de forma tal que vamos desarrollando mutiplicidad de actitudes frente a objetos distinto. Especial atención merece la publicidad, que conoce muy bien este tema, desarrolla actitudes favorables hacia some products to promote "intent" to purchase.
no doubt that the attitudes can change so much easier than the values \u200b\u200bfor example, achieving this through new learning or re-learning (conditioning, imitation, cognitive learning) on \u200b\u200bthe object of the attitude. If you have changed their negative opinion about someone as a result of new information he received from that person (directly or indirectly), he experienced the process of amendment or change of attitude. We can also modify actidues of others through persuasion, to be discussed later. Focus
requires an important phenomenon, described by the psychologist Leon Festinger in 1957, which is given in the field of attitudes, the so-called cognitive dissonance, which is referred to a particular state internal voltage sense when a person has two attitudes or thoughts contradict each other, or when a person behaves differently from how they think or believe. There is then a state of imbalance and the individual will be motivated to reduce this imbalance. It is confirmed that someone, that "x" circumstances is forced to behave differently to how you think, will end arranging his thoughts in a way consistent with their behavior and vice versa probablemenete also fall in an exhibition or selective perception of information for cognitive balance. Cognitive dissonance is a possible alternative to implement to promote change of attitudes in people.
Prejudice is an attitude, we generally associate with negative elements such as discrimination, which is accompanied by negative feelings towards someone (or something) and it rests on stereotypical beliefs, that is general and simple concepts on which we base our behavior to that person, unconsciously or receiving selectively filtering information in a manner that complies with the prejudice. Some of the attitudes that can lead to conflict are:
- Organize, manage, send or impose.
- admonish, threaten
- moralizing, lecturing, creating an obligation
- The capacity to advise, solutions monopolize
- Persuading with logic, arguing, lecturing
- Judging, criticizing, lecturing
- Interpret, analyze, diagnose
- Questioning
- Divert, divert, joking with some
Moreover, the parties in conflict may take different attitudes such as:
- Racing, that is "win at all costs
- Coping, ie" lose " act as a loser and I submit, "you win"
- Avoid the problem, namely escape, ignore it, lose-lose
- Cooperate, ie find the "win-win-win I win
- negotiate, compromise and that is winning on both sides engage in a solution
Motivation Motivation is that which directs, and maintains active behavior. The word motivation comes from reason, which refers to the underlying goals and induce desired behavior. Also to understand the motivational process or cycle is to refer to the instincts or impulses that seek to meet the different needs of individuals, which correspond to gaps in the body. There needs organic or primary: the need to eat, drink, eliminate waste, to rest, to keep out the cold or heat, and there are higher order needs such as the need for affiliation (relating to others, friendship, please, participate in activities social), the need for achievement (attain a goal, strive for achievement, strive for excellence, work responsibly) and the need for power (dominate, to control others, supervise, influence, persuade, compete to win, require, compel .) Other authors distinguish, as A. Maslow's physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness needs, esteem needs and self-actualization needs; and explains that the satisfaction of the first allows the search for satisfaction of the following, in a rising pyramid.
motivational cycle is a continuum that is why they all are initially in a state of internal equilibrium until an external stimulus or internal adjust that balance, giving rise to a need and desire to meet this gap and restore the equilibrium state for which the individual is involved in seeking behavior that reduces the drive, if the conduct is appropriate and does satisfy the need for internal balance is restored, if not achieved there is the frustration that can lead to internal or external aggression, or may arise the compensation, ie, the displacement of tension. As an example, we are initially in a steady state until someone tells us about how important it is to have a computer, the next step, we feel the need to have one and imagine how we would solve many issues, we experience a state of tension Internal drives us to save up to buy one, if we fail we may be annoying (to ourselves or blame others for expenses incurred) and we "shut down" with something or someone. It may be that we begin to compensate and think that I do not really solve my problems, or perhaps settle for attending a cyber café.
People engage in behaviors when they are motivated to do so. Motivation can come from within and speak of intrinsic motivation, such as the desire to feel competent, successful, or internally experience a sense of self-satisfaction, but also the motivation may come from outside and talked about extrinsic motivation, ie We behave in certain ways because it will give us an incentive, reward or recognition. The behavior becomes more stable when we seek to achieve a shift from extrinsic to intrinsic motivation.
From the point of view of conflict, it is important to note that individuals attend and participate in group instances because they feel their interests reflected in the group and the open agenda of the group, is approved and share all the declared objectives and interests, often apparently written and maintained by all members, without But there could be any member who has vested interests, and seeks undisclosed separate tasks within the group, thus maintaining a hidden agenda that prevents, delays or may even sabotage the group's efforts to achieve their goals. It is relevant to the solution of conflicts, acknowledge the possibility, to promote the development of genuine confidence to make more likely to know and accept the different interests and visions of people, so that is externalized and are treated, considered, accepted and / or respected by the group.
We may also note, regarding the understanding of personal conflicts, they arise in individuals who: experience needs, desires or conflicting values, competitive ways to satisfy a need or desire, frustration over the obstacles and differences of roles, what generates different motivations. For example, who argues it needs to satisfy conflicting desires compete with each other, distinguishing the approach-approach conflict in which the person is attracted to two seductive objects, but can only achieve one, or the approach-avoidance conflict, where they want something that has advantages and disadvantages at the same time, avoidance-avoidance, where two possibilities is negative, double approach-avoidance, in which two objects and each one has positive and negative aspects.
Perception Perception is the processing, interpretation, analysis and integration of stimuli captured by our sense organs, or in other words, is the process by which the individual meaning connotes the environment. The importance of perception derives from the fact that our behavior is largely reflection of how we react to stimuli from our environment and how we interpret, for two different people the same dog, in the same situation, can have the character for "dog" or indifferent, while for the other may be a "threat" or a danger.
A particularly important concept is that of selective attention and that is choosing which stimuli to pay attention to them. Pay special attention to those elements that seem most important or relevant to our own motivations, so for example if we had a day's work "hard" probably get home somewhat more irascible and any "detail" may charge a disproportionate significance tensione our relationships with family.
Moreover, from the point of view of conflict, there is a particularly relevant concept, we refer to uncertainty, that is, the experience we have when we face a situation whose meaning is not clear, up creating doubt and insecurity. The effects of uncertainty on individuals are generally negative, disorganized and upset because they can not generate an appropriate cognitive or behavioral response. Some people tolerate this situation better than others, which creates more or less stress or strain on the individual doing their answers more or less appropriate to the situation, depending on the assumptions that she made on the situation and the application to the situation of the baggage of beliefs that the person has developed. The misperception of the situation, in turn, can generate a personal or interpersonal conflict, leading to greater stress. In such situations should submit structural elements of the situation, clarify information, reduce uncertainty, tolerate and understand answers are not as tight or maybe set the times, removing extra pressure.
Roles
The role corresponds to a set of expected behavior patterns that is attributed to someone occupying a certain position in a social unit. Each of us plays not only a role or role in their daily activity, but sometimes several roles, both at work and outside it. Understanding the behavior of someone is trying to capture the role that person is playing at that time. Well, many of the roles we play are compatible, but it may be that some of them conflicted with each other, for example, someone can play the role of spokesman for a group and on the other hand have the leading role of the group, papers, both of which may conflict when forwarding a decision taken by the group versus what the leader sees as the most convenient. Another example, a member and representative of a religious community while working in a leadership position in a company and asked to lay off staff.
role identity is called to those attitudes and behaviors consistent with the role. This concept helps to understand why the attitudes and behaviors of a union official change to be promoted within the organization to a supervisory position, which will probably start to support the company's position more frequently.
role perception is called the idea of \u200b\u200bhow one should act in a given situation, based on what we believe should be our behavior according to the paper we play, think for example in the temperate and well-intentioned statements of the authorities who are in public life.
The role expectation is the perception by others of how one should act in a given situation according to the perceived role. Each of us has a specific role expectations about how to behave as a priest or a policeman, or teacher, etc. in a given situation. If expectations are generalized, concentrated and form categories we are dealing with a stereotypical role, and thus for example the role of wife may be stereotyped by a set of behaviors resulting from a male gaze. People can learn Quickly role stereotypes and behave according to them, taking away flexibility for analysis of each situation and acting in stereotypical ways, sometimes irrational, think for example in rigid positions held against all odds, beyond a prudent analysis of the circumstances , and which are to behave according to stereotype roles (security guard at a supermarket, for example)
The role conflict may arise a result of the role ambiguity, ie the performer's role is not clear about what expected to be his attitude and behavior, has inadequate information to get a clear idea of \u200b\u200bthe role that is assigned either to be incomplete, well to be interpreted in several ways, either by being very changeable, this of course will be a source of stress and conflict. Role conflict can also occur when the expectations of those around and those who depend on and relate the individual, are mutually contradictory expectations about what should be the act of performing the role, this conflict can take care of it using the definitions set , rules and procedures present in the Organization for the role. Another alternative role conflict may occur when behavioral expectations point to the performer's role considered totally excluded from what should be its performance (a secretary which prompted send information that she knows reserved to others)
Decision Making
Making a decision is to decide a course of action to resolve a situation. From a simple standpoint and ideal but you should know, can take a major "alternatives" available, which relate to possible courses of action, to list, once done you can set some "criteria" that are relevant ( hierarchically ordered) to weigh the alternatives, then works with a scale, say 1 to 5 (least attractive to most attractive) to apply the criteria on this scale, on the various alternatives. The decision will thus be the more or less objective result of this calculation is only coldly analyzing different alternatives on important satisfaction criteria. For example, if you want to decide where the course should go for a walk at year's end, you can list some alternatives or possible locations, then what criteria will be considered relevant when deciding (cost, distance, security, access, beauty the place, which takes place for bathing, or other). Finally, weighting each alternative under each criterion, so for example, the cost for the alternative X is attractive, the degree of beauty is not so attractive, the approach is attractive etc. Although people do this exercise in writing, if they use frequently to make decisions. Therefore you have to know what criteria people are using, what are the most important and what alternatives are viewing when holding its decisions in trying to resolve a problem.
An interesting phenomenon to study in understanding the behavior of human groups in making decisions is groupthink. This concept speaks of those situations where peer pressure to ensure conformity to the group prevent critically judge the original views, minority or unpopular. This phenomenon refers to time when the group looks forward both to reach a decision or agreement and reach a unanimous decision that a realistic assessment of alternative courses of action prematurely discarded.
Another phenomenon that is important to understand the behavior of people in a group is called the initial tendency of the group, which explains why groups sometimes take risky decisions that members had not taken. The initial discussion within the first reveals the most dangerous and extreme positions while conservative members expand their actions, the discussion is assuming greater familiarity among members, attitudes can be seen more "advanced" to decide the time is running out, added to it has been found, apparently in group "dilutes responsibility" and the collective decision to release members of the group's final decision.
techniques include making decisions, seeking to optimize them and overcome the above problems is brainstorming, which aims to generate creative alternatives several critical evaluation of deferring them for later. There is also the nominal group technique, in which each member establishes his or her prior position or idea, they all do the same, then go to display and present each one until all the ideas are reviewed and analyzed finally. Another is the Delphi technique, which is very similar the previous one, but that does not require the physical presence of the members who gave the ideas can be collected and worked previously and the group meets only to work the information collected to reach consensus.
Conflict resolution can often go through the agreement on the technique used to decide or the important criteria to consider, any consensus on methods sooner or later lead to the solution of the problem. Think for example when the election of Pope agreed to resolve the situation bordering Chile and Argentina.
Power
power denotes the ability of someone to influence the conduct of another, so do something that otherwise would not perform. The central element in power is the dependency ratio: the higher the dependency of X on Y, the greater the power of Y in the relationship, which is based on the perception of X on the options and / or resources Y. controls
Individuals can obtain their power, positions held by special personal characteristics that have, by the degree of expertise or competence that are in some area, being in the right place at the right time (timeliness). The power may be exercised in a coercive manner, administering awards, acting persuasively, managing knowledge or by controlling the information. Nonetheless, individuals use different "strategies" when it comes to achieve its objectives rely on reasons, facts and data to present their ideas logically, they resort to kindness, can form coalitions, negotiate, act directly tax and to require resort to higher authority to support its position, or may use sanctions, rewards or punishments. The tactics employed certainly depend on the sources of power. Finally we note that the exercise of power by members of a group and / or power is put into action policy.
There is perhaps another concept that the definition is more linked to the ability to generate conflict, such as power, since it is easily associated with negative situations. However, power itself is a necessary tool to bring about change, empowering those who do not have or rebalance the power structure in helping resolve conflict. The more unequal the distribution of power, the greater the possibility of a unilateral decision, not negotiated, and the probability that the differences of interest are suppressed to be ignored by the stronger party and can not be claimed by the weaker party . It then key in a conflict to analyze the existing powers, the power of each party in a negotiation will determined by the losses to each of you is not to reach an agreement with another party (knowing that as leverage it can use its power to reduce or nullify the benefits that usually brings him) and the costs involved for each accept requests and conditions that the other party tries to enforce. At the moment the cost of accepting the proposal of the other, exceeds the cost of a breakdown in negotiations, it will come inevitably, canceling the power of the other party to the negotiations. Interestingly, the bargaining power is a subjective power, it is to convince the other party that control the resources you need.
Interpersonal Relationships, Communication Skills and Assertiveness
Communication is an act by which two or more people express ideas, feelings and / or emotions using it mostly words and gestures. Verbal communication is called to what people say, is to say the words and is called Non-Verbal Communication to how people say that is what gestures, voice tone and volume used by the person to say something. They are part of the communication Non-Verbal intonation, posture maintained by the person speaking, the distance from the other, making gestures with his hands and facial expression. Non-Verbal communication tends to be more important in practice than verbal communication, for people to doubt about what someone says, ends up being guided more by the words and gestures, the words mentioned above. We've all had the experience of asking a favor of someone who says, "Well, I do" with a tone and an expression on the face of not wanting to do it, are then produced two contradictory messages: the words say "I do" and the tone and facial expression say "I do not want to." Who calls the plays for and is carried away by the second message ... and this is usually cause for discussion and malosentendidos or conflict.
To communicate well is important the verbal and non-verbal match, are consistent. It is also important to listen well: for it is necessary to stop talking, eliminate any distractions, be patient, interested in raising the other, ask questions that show your interest, make them feel comfortable when other and properly handle our emotions. Feedback is also very important, that is, tell the other what one is understanding him to see if it matches what the other wants to express. Anything that hinders proper communication is said to be a "communication barrier" such as noise, lack of interest, distance, prejudice, deafness, assumptions, etc.
human relations is something we all should care. People are the most important resource we have. Successful professionals strive to build strong and lasting relationships. It is important to establish personal contact and inspire appreciation and trust. Making people feel comfortable with and demonstrate an interest in the values \u200b\u200bof the other
to build mutually rewarding relationships we must learn to (1) determine mutually satisfying goals (2) establish and maintain harmony nonverbal (3) produce other positive feelings.
is even possible to develop emotional attunement to someone angry or stressed: The tune is a capability natural. The naturally generated in various ways. It is important to recognize when we are in tune with someone and when not. When a person is emotionally stressed is more effective alignment with the excitement that is expressing or manifesting. Shows his emotion and he accept as is, for example: "I have had enough" answer "looks like you're really upset me and that worries me," then it will be possible to evolve towards "you can sit a moment to talk and talk about what that upset you? "
To maintain and develop better relationships in our environment, we can start by asking what we are producing feelings of others? It's what we want around us? Then it will be necessary to create positive feelings in others; do things honestly to cause the other one more in tune with us. D. Carnegie, famous orator and advocate of Human Relations, raised some basic ideas to get along with others, genuinely interested in others, smile, remember and use the names of people to talk to them, being a good listener, encourage others to speak for themselves, make the other person feel important and do it sincerely.
Notwithstanding the foregoing, when difficult situations arise, we tested and where each of us experience strong feelings, assertiveness is the behavior that allows a person to act on their most important interests, to defend himself without anxiety, to express honest feelings comfortably, or to exercise personal rights without denying the rights of others. The assertion involves expressing thoughts and beliefs in an honest, direct and appropriate, without violating the rights of others. The assertion is based on mutual communication, give and receive respect. Non-assertive act can take two forms: deferred and no self-respect to develop a passive about the situation, or act aggressively violating the rights of others. Behavior passive results in a violation of the rights themselves not being able to openly express feelings, thoughts and opinions or to express them in a self-defeating, with apologies, lack of confidence, so that others can not ignore it. Who gets non-assertive behavior can also experience a variety of adverse consequences, constantly having to infer what is really telling the other person or having to read his thoughts is a difficult and overwhelming task that can lead to feelings of frustration, annoyance or even anger toward the person who is behaving in a non-assertive. Moreover aggressive behavior results in a defense of personal rights and expression of thoughts, feelings and opinions in an inappropriate manner and tax and violates the rights of others. Aggressive behavior in one situation may be expressed directly or indirectly. Direct verbal aggression includes verbal abuse, insults, threats, hostile or humiliating comments.
As an example, imagine that you arrive at your office and find that a gentleman is waiting. Be warned that you are angry and upset and that is black blame intentions (to you and charge) of something you did. It seems he is ready to fight. Non-assertive act would be for example, say you're right, before to learn the facts, in order to calm; to apologize and promise to fix things while I wish that all this had not happened for all the work you have to do. Or maybe stay in front of him with his eyes fixed on the carpet and said nothing, waiting for him down the courage and go. But if you opt for an assertive behavior probably do something like this: calmly ask the person to report on what it believes happened, to try to deduce the facts and accepting those you know to be true, taking note of the problem and additional information you will need, saying that he understands that you are upset and angry, asking what you want done about it and agreeing with him on how to proceed to fix things.
Persuasion and Negotiation
Persuasion is a strategy to change attitudes of someone, pointing mainly to cognitions or thoughts that holds that person, but to be more likely to occur, the source information must be credible, reliable, representative, with communication skills and deliver a message with arguments for and bring forward arguments or opinions to the contrary. Messages that invoke fear are not effective for the defense mechanisms that people have and yes are more effective when they include specific practices to avoid danger. We have also found that processing people do the informacón may be central or peripheral, the first interpretation is characterized by careful consideration of the arguments used, whereas peripheral processing is characterized by the source address of the message and general information. The central route processing produces attitude change of longer duration, but the use of celebrities aims to change attitudes through peripheral processing of information, where not question the source and attends to the message in general.
Negotiation is part of life. Often we are trying to reach an agreement with someone about something of common interest people negotiate even when they learn that they are doing. Is a daily and habitual at all. Negotiation is a basic means to get what you want from others, is a mutual communication designed to reach an agreement when two people have some common interests and others are opposites. Perceived two ways to negotiate, a soft and a hard, soft negotiator wants to avoid personal conflicts and, therefore, immediately makes concessions to reach an agreement, is ineffective in defending their interests, and secondly the negotiator hard to see any situation as a contest of wills, where the party that takes extreme positions and holds steady for longer, get more. Often ends up producing an equally tough response to what he already exhausted their resources, and also damages the relationship with the other party. A third way to negotiate, which is neither hard nor soft, but both at once. It is known as the "method of principled negotiation." Is to resolve issues on their merits and not through a sharp focus on each party to say what will and what will not. Suggests looking for mutual benefit wherever possible, and where there is conflicting interests these should be resolved on the basis of fair and independent patterns of the will of either party. The method of principled negotiation is hard on the merits and kind towards people. It does not use tricks or positions. The principled negotiation proposes how to get what has been proposed to maintain decency. Lets be fair while protecting it from those who want to take advantage of this.
There are four points that define a method of direct negotiation and can be used under almost any circumstances. Each point is a basic element of negotiation and suggests what to do about it: (1) People: separate the people from the problem (participants must be themselves as working side by side, attacking the problem, not each other, otherwise the ego of people is suffering and end up stalling or entrenched in their positions). (2) Interest: focus on interests, not positions (If only it were to resolve the position, the result would be an endless series of explanations, excuses and accusations, but to focus on the interest, however, the parties may reformulate its interpersonal relationships, understanding each other's feelings and proposing actions for mutual benefit) (3) Options: generate a variety of possibilities before deciding what will be done (to meditate on a wide range of solutions possible to promote shared interests and creatively reconcile differing interests, or find alternatives for the common good) and finally (4) Criteria: insist that the results are based on common objectives (the agreement must reflect a fair basis independent the willingness of each to achieve the common good). Among the skills of a negotiator is the Analysis to analyze the situation and gather information, organize it and meditate on it, assess the human problems of partial perceptions, emotions, hostile, lack of clarity in communication, such as identifying the interests of two parts. Also note options and proposals and identify any approach suggested as a basis for an agreement, the Planning to focus on the four elements as described (people, interests, options and criteria) to generate ideas and decide what will and communication skills of persuasion and talk to, so active and fluid, communicate and understand the interests of the other party, getting together to align and generate options that are advantageous to both, seeking agreement on objective standards to resolve conflicting interests. Bibliography
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Allport GW, Vernon PE & G Lindzey, Study of Values \u200b\u200b(Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1951) cited in Organizational Behavior, Stephen P. Robbins, Prentice-Hall Hispano SA, 1987, p. 96
Robert S Feldman, Psychology with Applications to Latin America, Editorial Mc Graw Hill, 2nd. Edition, 1995 p. 328
Munduate Lourdes J., Inmaculada FJ Cisneros, Miguel A. Dorado and Francisco Medina Díaz; Evolution of Conflict Management and Negotiation in Spain. Interpersonal and Cultural Factors Psychologist Rev. Papers, No. 72 February, 1999
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Alvarez, Guillermo Perception of the Organization: the key to understanding the behavior of the individual in the organization. American Journal of Occupational Psychology Vol 11 No. 1 and 2, 1992 p.16
